How Do You Short a Stock? Essential Short Selling Tips for Beginners

Short selling is a financial strategy that sparks strong opinions, from admiration of its profit potential to criticism for its role in market volatility. Officially, short sales create a more liquid and efficient market. Unlike traditional stock trading, where investors buy shares anticipating a price increase, short selling involves borrowing shares to sell, hoping to buy them at a lower price. This method allows investors to profit from declining stock values. However, it also comes with significant complexities and unlimited risk.

In this article, we walk through the mechanics of a short sale, offering a clear, step-by-step guide detailing how to short a stock. While exploring the dynamics of a short squeeze, a scenario where a rapid price increase forces short sellers to buy back shares at higher prices, further driving up the stock's price. Additionally, we explore the gamma squeeze phenomenon using Tesla ($TSLA) and Gamestop ($GME), aka Warren Icahn's Gameshire Hathastop, the 'Citadel destroyer', as examples. Where options trading amplifies price surges, intensifying the pressure on short sellers.

We also discuss how to use 'call options' as a hedging strategy. By purchasing call options, investors can hedge against potential losses from their short positions, providing a safety net if the 'stonk moons unexpectedly'. This technique mitigates some inherent short-sale risks, making derivatives (options) a vital tool for sophisticated traders.

How to Short a Stock
Short Selling: how to profit from falling share prices?

Beyond the technicalities, we examine the broader implications of short selling, analyzing its effects on long investors, who may face heightened volatility and significant declines in the value of their holdings. While considering the impact on individual companies, particularly how excessive short selling erodes their market value, public perception and ability to gain credit, as seen with Toys R Us and Bed Bath & Beyond ($BBBY). Furthermore, we address the systemic risks associated with abusive practices such as naked short selling, where shares are sold short without first being borrowed, leading to market instability and more shares in circulation than legally allowed.

Whether you're an experienced trader or a curious newcomer, understanding the nuances of short selling is crucial for navigating today's dynamic investment landscape. By the end of this article, you will have a comprehensive understanding of how short selling operates, its potential rewards, and the significant risks and ethical considerations it entails. This insight will empower you to make informed decisions and appreciate the complex interplay of dynamic market forces that short-selling influences.

What is Short Selling?

At its core, short selling involves borrowing shares of a stock from a broker and selling them at the current market price, with the obligation to buy back the same number of shares later. The goal is to repurchase the shares at a lower price, return them to the broker, and pocket the difference as profit. This strategy is employed when an investor believes a stock's price will decline. However, it's inherently risky as you're looking at unlimited losses if the trade goes the other way. The famous last words, 'It literally can't go tits up!' spring to mind.

The mechanics of short selling require an understanding of market trends and timing. Investors must identify overvalued stocks likely to drop in price and execute their short sales before the market corrects itself, involving thorough research using technical indicators and market sentiment analysis. Additionally, shorting isn't free; there is a cost to borrow the stock plus interest. These costs add up and eat into potential profits, making short-selling a strategy requiring careful consideration and precise execution.

Beyond the individual risks, short selling has broader market implications. It contributes to market liquidity and price discovery, as short sellers often identify overvalued stocks and help correct market inefficiencies. However, it can lead to increased volatility and, in some cases, market manipulation. For example, abusive practices like naked short-selling create artificial downward pressure on stock prices, harming companies and investors alike.

How to Short a Stock: Step-by-Step Guide

Short selling can be a lucrative strategy if executed correctly, but it comes with significant risks. Here's a step-by-step guide to help you understand how to short a stock:

  1. Understand the Risks

    Before initiating a short sale, it's crucial to understand the risks involved. Short selling is highly speculative and can lead to substantial losses if the stock price rises instead of falls. Unlike buying stocks, where the maximum loss is the amount invested, short selling can result in unlimited losses since there is no limit to how high a stock's price can go.

    I hereby present you with the ability to lose more than 5000% of your initial investment in just a few 'short', chaotic minutes! Yup, that's shorting stonks for you, especially microcap or nanocap. You have 'big problems' if one of those bad boys goes the wrong way. Nanocaps have the potential to launch into a different stratosphere!

  2. Open a Margin Account

    To sell short, you need a margin account with your stock broker. A margin account allows you to borrow shares from the broker. This account also requires you to maintain a certain level of equity as collateral for the borrowed shares. Ensure you meet the requirements for opening a margin account and understand the maintenance margin rules.

  3. Identify a Stock to Short

    Conduct thorough research to identify a stock you believe is overvalued and likely to decrease in price. Use fundamental and technical analysis to support your decision. Look for declining earnings, overbought conditions, or negative industry trends.

  4. Place a Short Sell Order

    Once you've identified a stock, place a short sell order through your brokerage account. Specify the number of shares you want to short and the price at which you want to execute the sale. You can place different order types, such as market orders (executed immediately at the current price) or limit orders (executed at a specified price or better).

  5. Monitor Your Position

    After executing the short sale, monitor your position closely. Watch for price movements and any news or events that might affect the stock price, and be prepared to act quickly if the market moves against you to minimize losses.

  6. Use Stop-Loss Orders

    To manage risk, consider using stop-loss orders. A stop-loss order automatically buys back the shares if the stock price reaches a certain level, limiting potential losses.

  7. Understand Costs and Fees

    Be aware of the costs associated with short selling. These include interest on the borrowed shares, margin account fees, and any dividends paid to the lender if the stock pays dividends. These costs can accumulate over time, so factor them into your profit and loss calculations.

  8. Cover Your Short Position

    To close your short position, you need to buy back the same number of shares you initially sold (known as "covering" your short) by placing a buy order through your brokerage account. If the stock price has dropped as anticipated, you will buy back the shares at a lower price and profit from the difference. If the price has increased, you'll suffer a loss.

  9. Review and Learn

    After closing your short position, review the trade to understand what worked and what didn't. Analyze your research, timing, and execution to learn from the experience. Continuous learning and adaptation will improve your short-selling technique.

Key Considerations in Short Selling

  • Regulation by the SEC

    The practice is regulated under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, ensuring transparency and fairness in the market. Although naked short selling is rampant in the American and European stock markets when it is allegedly banned, queue the famous Gamestop short squeeze or "Sneeze", as the r/Superstonk crew on Reddit refer to it.

  • Costs Involved

    Short selling isn't free; there is margin interest, it's the cost of borrowing shares and any potential dividends you might owe to the stock lender.

  • Risks

    The risks are unlimited. If the stock price increases instead of decreasing, you will have to buy back at a higher price, leading to a loss. Theoretically, there is no limit to the potential loss since stock prices can rise indefinitely.

Why Investors Choose to Short Sell

  • Speculation: Some investors speculate on overvalued stocks, expecting them to decline in price.
  • Hedging: Others use shorting as a hedge to offset potential losses in their long-term positions, especially in volatile markets.
  • Market Efficiency: Despite some criticisms, short selling contributes to market liquidity and efficiency by correcting overvalued stock prices.

Challenges and Strategic Considerations

  • Locating Shares to Borrow: Sometimes, finding shares to sell short can be challenging, especially for stocks that are not widely available or in high demand.
  • Short Squeezes: A short squeeze occurs when a stock's price rises rapidly, forcing short sellers to buy shares to cover their positions, further driving up the stock price.

By understanding these elements, you can better navigate the complexities of short selling and make informed decisions about using this strategy in your trading portfolio.

The Benefits of Short Selling

Short selling provides an opportunity to profit from declining stock prices and offers several strategic advantages that can enhance portfolio management and market stability. Here's a detailed look at the key benefits:

  • Significant Profit Potential from Market Downturns

    Short selling enables traders to capitalize on market downturns, a strategy not available with traditional long-only investments. It's a lucrative strategy during bear markets or when specific sectors or companies underperform due to economic or corporate challenges.

  • Leveraged Investment Opportunities

    Short selling is inherently a leveraged form of investing. So, you can control a significant quantity of shares with a small amount of upfront capital. While this can increase potential returns, it also amplifies potential risks.

  • Hedging Capabilities

    One of the primary uses of short selling is as a hedge against market volatility or downturns in other areas of your portfolio. For instance, if you hold a long position in a particular sector, shorting same sector stocks offsets potential losses, providing insurance against market fluctuations.

  • Enhanced Market Liquidity and Efficiency

    By adding selling pressure to overvalued stocks, short sellers help correct market imbalances, contributing to more accurate stock pricing. This activity supports efficient price discovery and increases market liquidity, which benefits all market participants by providing more opportunities for entry and exit, reducing the cost of trading.

  • Diversification Through Market-Neutral Strategies

    Incorporating short and long positions can create a market-neutral strategy, helping to reduce overall portfolio volatility. This diversification allows investors to profit in various market conditions without excessive exposure to upward or downward movements.

  • Promoting Financial Market Stability

    Short selling is a counterbalance within the financial markets, encouraging scepticism and critical analysis. Scrutiny leads to the exposure of overvalued stocks and fraudulent practices, contributing to a healthier market environment.

  • Income Opportunities Through Dividends

    Although short sellers are responsible for paying dividends on the borrowed stocks, strategic short selling also generates income by carefully selecting dividend-paying stocks and balancing the costs involved.

Each of these benefits plays a crucial role in the broader financial landscape, providing tools for investors to manage risk, capitalize on market opportunities, and contribute to the overall efficiency and stability of the financial markets.

Short Selling Mechanics

Short selling is a sophisticated investment strategy offering significant returns but comes with unique risks and costs. Understanding the mechanics of short selling is crucial for any investor considering going short. Here's a breakdown of the essential components and processes in shorting a stock.

Costs Involved in Short Selling

Short selling involves several costs that can impact the profitability of your trades. These include:

  • Margin Interest: Since you are borrowing to sell, you will incur margin interest charges from your broker.
  • Stock Borrowing Costs: There are fees associated with borrowing shares, with the cost to borrow percentage dependent on their availability and demand.
  • Dividends: If the borrowed stock pays dividends during your short position, you are responsible for paying the dividends to the lender.

Key Considerations and Risks

Understanding the risks associated with short selling is vital:

  • Market Risk: If the stock price increases instead of decreasing, your potential losses are unlimited.
  • Regulatory Considerations: Short selling is heavily regulated, and understanding these regulations is crucial to avoid legal issues.
  • Short Squeezes: A rapid increase in a stock's price can lead to a short squeeze, forcing short sellers to buy back at high prices to cover their positions, potentially leading to significant losses.

Trading Strategies for Short Selling

Several strategies can be employed when short selling:

  • Trading on Pullbacks: Look for stocks in a downtrend and short sell during a minor pullback, anticipating the continuation of the downtrend.
  • Range Trading: Identify stocks with a stable trading range and short sell at the upper boundary, expecting the price to move towards the lower boundary.
  • Intraday Short Selling: This involves opening and closing short positions within the same trading day to capitalize on bearish moves without overnight risk.

By understanding the mechanics, costs, and strategies associated with shorting, you can better implement this complex investment approach and enhance your trading acumen.

Risks Involved with Short Selling

  • Unlimited Losses

    Short selling exposes you to unlimited losses. Unlike purchasing shares (going long), where the maximum loss is the amount invested, short-selling risks are magnified because a stock's price can theoretically climb indefinitely, especially if derivative trading is involved. Short selling is a high-stakes game that is extremely risky for inexperienced traders.

  • Margin Calls and Additional Costs

    When you short a stock, you're required to maintain a margin account. If the stock price rises, you may face a margin call demanding funds or securities to cover losses, forcing you to liquidate positions at unfavourable times. Additionally, short selling incurs costs such as margin interest and, possibly, substantial "hard-to-borrow" fees for stocks that are difficult to source.

  • Regulatory Risks

    Short selling is regulated by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) under rules like the Regulation SHO, which imposes conditions on when and how you can short-sell. Non-compliance can lead to legal troubles and financial penalties, complicating the trading strategy further.

  • Short Squeeze

    A short squeeze occurs when a stock price suddenly jumps higher, causing short sellers to buy back shares to prevent further losses. The buying pressure drives the price even higher, compounding losses quickly. Short squeezes are triggered by unexpected news, market shifts, and cumulative buying from other traders.

  • Negative Market Perception

    Short sellers often face criticism and negativity from other market participants who view short selling as betting against market success. The stigma can lead to additional scrutiny and pressure, impacting decision-making and strategy implementation.

  • High Skill and Discipline

    Successful short selling demands discipline and a robust understanding of market signals. Timing is crucial, and getting it wrong can result in significant financial losses, making it a risky endeavour for even the most seasoned traders. By being aware of the risks, you can approach short selling with an informed perspective, safeguarding your investments from severe downturns.

Necessary Tools and Accounts for Short Selling

Here's a straightforward guide detailing what you'll need to start short selling:

Trading Platforms

Choosing the right trading platform is crucial for executing short sales effectively. Platforms like IG's proprietary software and MetaTrader 4 and 5 offer options to suit different trading styles and preferences. Of course, there are many trading platforms suitable for shorting stocks, these are just a few examples to get started.

  • IG's Proprietary Platform: Known for its user-friendly interface, is a good choice for traders of all experience levels.
  • MetaTrader 4 & 5: Popular for forex trading, it also offers robust features for short-selling stocks.
  • ProRealTime: Best suited for advanced traders who require comprehensive technical analysis tools.
  • L2 Dealer: Ideal for direct market access, allowing sophisticated trading and order placement.

Each platform has unique strengths, so evaluate which suits your trading strategy and experience level.

Opening a Margin Account

A margin account is essential for short selling as it allows you to borrow shares from your broker. Here's how you can set one up:

  1. Choose a Broker: Select a broker that offers competitive margin rates and robust short-selling facilities.
  2. Application Process: Complete the application form, which typically includes providing your financial information and investment experience.
  3. Approval: Once your application is reviewed and approved, you can fund your account and start trading.
  4. Maintenance: Watch your margin requirements and ensure you have adequate funds to cover potential margin calls.

This setup facilitates the borrowing of shares and plays a critical role in managing the risks associated with leveraged trading positions.

Locate and Borrowing Challenges

  • Availability of Shares

    One of the hurdles you will encounter in short selling is finding available shares to borrow. Securing shares can be challenging for stocks with a low float or those heavily targeted by other short sellers. The scarcity increases interest costs as the demand for the same shares exceeds the supply.

  • Interest Costs

    When the availability of shares to borrow is limited, the cost to borrow percentage increases. Short sellers pay interest to the lender for the privilege of borrowing the shares. Higher interest costs impact the short-selling profits.

  • Regulatory Challenges

    Short-selling regulations vary depending on the region. For instance, in the European Union, any short position exceeding 0.2% of the issued shares must be disclosed to regulators, and positions over 0.5% must be publicly disclosed. In markets like Hong Kong, short selling is restricted to designated securities and must be backed by borrowed shares, adding another layer of complexity to the process.

  • Risk of Locate Settlement Failure

    A critical operational risk in short selling is the potential for a locate settlement failure. This occurs when a broker fails to deliver the borrowed securities to the buyer's account by the settlement date. Such failures lead to penalties and additional costs and could damage the broker's reputation, affecting your trading activities.

  • Uptick Rule

    Some markets enforce an uptick rule, which states a short sale can only be executed at a price higher than the last trade price. This rule complicates the timing of your short sales, especially in rapidly declining markets, as it limits the ability to execute trades at optimal prices.

  • Risk of Recall

    Another significant risk is the possibility of the lender recalling their shares. If this happens, you must return the borrowed shares promptly, forcing you to buy back at unfavourable prices if the market has moved against you and the share price has increased since initiating the short position.

Understanding the Dynamics of a Short Squeeze

A short squeeze occurs when the price of a stock rapidly increases, compelling short sellers to buy back their positions to minimize losses. This sudden surge in buying activity can push the stock price even higher, amplifying the squeeze effect. If call options are involved, it could create a gamma ramp, sending the stock price soaring. Here are the dynamics that contribute to a short squeeze:

  • Initial Price Increase: It starts when the price of a stock unexpectedly rises due to positive news about the company, industry shifts, market conditions, or anything.
  • Rapid Covering of Positions: Short sellers, attempting to cut their losses, start buying back the stock, adding upward pressure on the stock price.
  • Momentum Gains: As the price climbs, more short sellers rush to cover their positions, accelerating the price increase.

The Impact of Short Squeezes on Market Behavior

Short squeezes significantly affect market behaviour, leading to volatility and price distortions. Here's how they impact the market:

  • Increased Volatility: The rapid rise in stock prices during a short squeeze can lead to increased market volatility, affecting the stability of the broader market.
  • Price Inflation: Short squeezes can temporarily inflate stock prices beyond their fundamental values, which may mislead uninformed investors.
  • Opportunities and Risks: While they provide opportunities for gains, especially for contrarian investors who anticipate these events, the risks are equally high due to the potential for sudden and severe price reversals.

Examples and Historical Context

Consider the case of Tesla Inc., one of the most shorted stocks in the U.S. markets. The significant short interest in Tesla led to multiple short squeezes over the years, dramatically impacting its stock price and the market's perception of its valuation.

Strategies to Navigate Short Squeezes

For traders looking to avoid the pitfalls or potentially profit from short squeezes, understanding market signals and timing is crucial:

  • Watch Short Interest Levels: High short interest is a precursor to a short squeeze.
  • Monitor Market Sentiment: Watch out for news and market trends that might trigger a price increase.
  • Consider Timing: Entering or exiting positions at the right time can be critical in managing risks associated with short squeezes.

Short squeezes represent a unique and powerful market phenomenon leading to dramatic shifts in share prices, creating opportunities and challenges. Understanding the mechanics behind these events and the broader market impact enables astute traders to take advantage.

Strategies for Successful Short Selling

Short selling can be a lucrative strategy if executed with precision and caution. Here are some effective strategies and considerations that can help you succeed in short selling:

  • Identifying Short Candidates

    Before considering short selling, it's crucial to identify potential stocks. Look for companies with signs of trouble, such as obsolete business models, accounting irregularities, or poor management, indicating a decline in the stock's value is on the horizon, making them prime candidates for shorting.

  • Timing and Discipline

    Successful short selling is not just about selecting the right stock but also about timing the market. It's essential to enter and exit positions at the right moment. Waiting too long in an unprofitable position can lead to significant losses, as stocks can rebound unexpectedly.

  • Managing Risk

    Short selling comes with risks, which makes managing them a critical part of your strategy. Utilize tools like stop-loss orders to limit potential losses. Additionally, be cautious with position-sizing to avoid significant losses if the market moves against you.

Using Derivatives for Short Selling

Derivatives, such as options and futures, can be used to execute a synthetic short-selling strategy:

  • Buying Put Options: This gives you the right to sell a stock at a predetermined price, offering a safer alternative to traditional short selling.
  • CFD Trading: Contracts for Difference (CFDs) allow you to trade on the price movement of stocks without owning them. Opening a sell position in a CFD benefits you if the stock price falls.

Technical Analysis

Incorporate technical analysis to identify key levels where stocks may experience price changes. Watching for breakouts below support levels is a good strategy for entering a short position. Additionally, watch for volume increases, signifying a strengthening move.

Emotional Discipline

Avoid letting emotions control your trading decisions. Greed can lead to holding onto losing positions for too long, while fear can cause premature exits. Maintain emotional discipline to make rational decisions based on market data and personal trading plans.

By integrating these strategies, you can enhance your ability to profit from short selling while minimizing risks. Remember, thorough research and continuous learning are your best tools to profit consistently in the capital markets.

Short Selling Effects on Long Investors

While short selling plays a crucial role in market dynamics and efficiency, it can lead to heightened volatility and significant declines in stock prices, impacting long investors. Understanding these implications can help long-term investors develop strategies to mitigate risks and capitalize on opportunities arising from short-selling activities.

Heightened Volatility

  • Unpredictable Prices: Long investors may experience more pronounced and frequent price swings in their holdings, making it harder to predict performance and manage their portfolios.
  • Psychological Stress: Increased volatility can cause psychological stress and lead to emotionally driven decisions, such as panic selling during sharp declines.

Significant Declines in Value

  • Lower Portfolio Value: Aggressive short selling can lead to significant declines in share price held by long investors, reducing overall portfolio value.
  • Margin Calls: For long investors using margin, significant declines in stock prices can trigger margin calls, forcing them to sell assets at a loss to meet margin requirements.

Opportunities

  • Buying Opportunities: Short selling-induced price drops can provide attractive buying opportunities for long investors with conviction in the company fundamentals.
  • Potential for Gains: If short sellers are wrong and the stock price recovers or increases, long investors benefit from the subsequent price rise, even more so if a short squeeze occurs.

Mitigation Strategies for Long Investors

  • Diversification: Spreading investments across assets can reduce the impact of volatility and declines in any single holding.
  • Fundamental Analysis: Focusing on the fundamental value of investments rather than short-term price movements can help long investors maintain conviction and avoid panic selling.
  • Hedging: Using options or other financial instruments to hedge against potential declines can protect portfolios from downside risk.
  • Staying Informed: Keeping abreast of market conditions, including the levels of short interest in their holdings, can help long investors make more informed decisions.

Abusive Short Selling: Impact on Individual Companies

Targeted short selling significantly impacts individual companies, especially when it becomes excessive and abusive. One of the primary consequences is the erosion of market value. When a large quantity of shares are sold short, selling pressure increases on the stock, driving the share price down.

Negative Feedback Loop

The decline in market value can be especially damaging for companies already struggling, as it creates a negative feedback loop where falling stock prices lead to further short selling, exacerbating the downward spiral. For instance, Toys "R" Us and Bed Bath & Beyond experienced significant declines in their stock prices due to intense short-selling activity. The continuous pressure on their stock prices made it difficult for them to stabilize their financial positions and regain investor confidence.

Perceived Company in Distress

In addition to market value erosion, excessive short-selling impacts the public perception of a company. A heavily shorted company is often perceived as distressed, even if the underlying fundamentals do not warrant such a bleak outlook. The negative sentiment can spread quickly, causing consumers, investors, and potential business partners to lose faith in the company's prospects.

In the case of Toys "R" Us, the perception that the company was doomed became a self-fulfilling prophecy, as negative market sentiment discouraged customers and investors alike, hastening its decline. Similarly, Bed Bath & Beyond faced a tarnished public image due to relentless naked short-selling, making it impossible to continue normal business operations.

Access to Credit

Furthermore, excessive short-selling impedes a company's ability to secure credit and financing. Lenders and creditors closely monitor stock performance as a financial health indicator. A significant drop in stock price due to abusive short selling leads to tighter credit conditions, higher borrowing costs, or even a complete loss of access to credit markets. For companies like Toys "R" Us and Bed Bath & Beyond, already in precarious financial positions, the additional strain from reduced creditworthiness was a critical blow.

The inability to obtain necessary financing can hinder operations and stifle growth opportunities, ultimately leading to insolvency. Thus, while shorting provides liquidity and price discovery in the markets, its excessive use precipitates a detrimental cycle of declining value, negative perception, and financial instability for individual companies.

Final Thoughts

We have covered short selling extensively, providing insights into the mechanics, benefits, and challenges shorting presents. We have explained how to initiate a short sale, highlighted the significant risks, and underscored strategies that can lead to a profitable short-selling campaign. By understanding the potential for profit in market downturns and risk management strategies, traders and investors can consider short selling a sophisticated complement to their trading arsenal.

To wrap up, I'll emphasize the importance of careful consideration and strategic planning on a fundamental and technical analysis basis. If your analysis is flawed and you end up on the wrong side of a short squeeze, it will be painful for your bank balance - the razor blades and lemon juice type of pain.

Timing and risk management form the cornerstone of successful short selling. For those considering this bold and risky strategy, continue to educate yourself, stay abreast of market trends and regulations, and approach short selling with a balanced perspective of its opportunities, risks and challenges. When executed correctly, short selling offers an exciting avenue for diversifying and profiting under various market conditions.

Short Selling FAQs

To short-sell a stock, follow these essential steps:

  • Open and fund a brokerage account.
  • Apply for margin trading privileges.
  • Borrow the stock you intend to short-sell.
  • Sell the stock into the market.
  • Buy the stock back and close your position when appropriate.

Successful short selling hinges on a deep analysis of the market. This includes understanding market trends, scrutinizing financial statements, and identifying indicators that a stock's price may fall. Timing is crucial; knowing when to enter and exit positions can significantly affect your profitability.

Before shorting a stock, ensure that it shows signs of weakness relative to the market index and is trending downward. The stock should be trading below its 30-week moving average, and similarly, other stocks in the same sector should also exhibit weakness. Additionally, look for stocks that have experienced a significant price increase, as they may be due for a correction.

A common strategy in short trading is to set your sell-stop or buy-stop orders within 10% to 15% of the stock's price at which you initiated the short. This approach helps manage losses and ensures that your gains outweigh the losses over time.

Sam Penney
Author: Sam Penney

Sam is a finance expert with over 10 years experience in investment banking. Over the years, she has worked on various financial deals, including mergers, acquisitions, and fundraising efforts.

Updated: 14th of November 2024

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